Icon Iconology and Iconogaphy modelling

Artwork description

In Vermeer’s Woman Holding a Balance (see Fig. 1) the standing woman depicted has been interpreted as a Divine Justice personification (l. 2) by Van Straten; this recognition, as the general moral meaning of the scene, is based on the interpretation of symbols depicted. The woman is weighting with an empty balance, an act that can be seen as a parallel to the Last Judgement depicted in the painting in the background, an event in which Christ weights and judges souls at the end of times according to the moral conduct of each one. The symbolic meaning of other objects in the room support this interpretation: the mirror hung on the wall exactly at the height of the woman’s face is a symbol of introspection, and the jewellery box on the table represents the vanitas of earthly goods. Thus, a relation between two actions, one real and the other metaphorical (act of weighting), suggests that the symbolical meaning proper of the latter is the reading key of the former: the woman is morally weighting her conduct as an invitation to the observer to do the same (l. 3). The Divine Justice personification depends on this interpretation as well, but, since it’s a subject (l. 2) remanding to a concept (l. 3), it’s located in the second interpretation level, next to the genre subject firstly individuated.

Furthermore, this artwork interpretation can then lead to other considerations, such as the cultural value or the purpose of use that a similar artwork could have had in the Dutch context of the seventeenth century (l. 4). Indeed, similarities with Vermeer’s Allegory of Faith , which reminds of the contemporary prohibition of public profession of catholic faith (Liedtke, 2010), can lead to the conclusion that the artwork in object is another document of this historical phenomenon.

Artwork description

Lotto’s Venus and Cupid (see Fig. 2) is an enigmatic artwork which epithalamic message (l. 3) had been interpreted on the basis of the symbols depicted, and related to the social tradition of paintings donated as a wedding wish for wedding occasions (l. 4).

The numerous symbols present in the scene can have a meaning belonging to themes related to love and marriage: fertility (puer mingens, cone shell), typical dressing of a Venetian bride (tiara, earrings, veil) bridal chamber (myrtle crown, red cloth, incense burner), seduction (Venus’ belt), love and fidelity (knotted ribbon bracelets, rose, ivy), jealousy (snake) and the stick with which Venus punished Cupid. These meanings can be recognized thanks to coeval visual and literary sources, including the classical ones that could be known at the time (Christiansen 1986, 2018).

Furthermore, the theme of Cupid inviting Venus to hurry to preside over the wedding was widespread in classical epithalamic compositions and the remediation from literal to figurative medium happened by the habit of representing Venus and Paris on the inside of the lid of the wedding chests.

On the basis of the interpretation of symbols and wedding clothes, added to Venus's acception as the deity of conjugal love, the painting has been recognized as clearly linked to the tradition of epithalamic paintings donated in wedding occasions. In addition, Christiansen (1986) recognizes that Venus could be the portrait of the bride to whom the painting was destinated for her marriage.

Artwork description

The last case belonging to this section expresses a more complex scenario: it’s a cycle composed by 3 complete scenes and, in addition, numerous aspects of the cultural and historical context are involved; thirdly, it’s inserted in the evolution of the specific iconography of Magi, linked with politics (Cardini et. al, 2001).

The Benozzo Gozzoli Procession of the Magi (1459-1462) is depicted in the family chapel, located in the core of Palazzo Medici in Florence, the building at the time still not finished destined to be the symbol of the increasing family’s importance.

The iconographical choice for this location is significant since the Magi is an iconography closely linked to politics and the concept of sacralization of power: they were considered heirs of the conception of the earthly emperor legitimized by a divine power that already characterized the Augusti of the Roman Empire from Constantine onwards (Cardini et. al, 2001). In the contemporary Florentine context, then, the Magi’s festivity was narrowly linked to the Medici family, allowing the hypothesis that the scene depicted can allude to the procession of Magi performed during this occasion. In fact, portraits of members of the family are depicted in the procession.

The Cardini’s (2001) reading of the fresco as the representation of political aspirations of the family is based on the recognition of John VIII Palaiologos, the Byzantine Emperor, painted as the adult Mago, while, as Marco Bussagli affirms, the old Mago is the portrait of Sigismund of Luxemburg, Holy Roman Emperor (1433-1437). Thus, the young descendant of the family, depicted as the young Mago, is symbolically represented as the future ruler of the known world as the heir of the West and East rulers of the roman empire.

Artwork description

Laocoon and his sons episode (originally taken from Vergil’s Aeneid. 2, 199-233) is another example belonging to the tradition recognized by Panofsky and Saxl of classical themes depicted in a fully medieval style, deprived of their classical motifs. It is represented in a XIV century illuminated manuscript carrying the Aeneid text (Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, ms vat. 2761, folio 15r).

Here, “the Laocoon who makes the sacrifice becomes a wild and bald old priest who attacks the little bull with [...] an ax, while the two little boys float around [...] and the sea snakes appear briskly in a pool of water” (Panofsky, Saxl, 1933, p. 253).

The scene is very different from the classical style of the Vatican statue (Fig. 6), in which characters are seminude figures depicted while they are entangled in sea snakes. It focuses on their desperation, and on the beauty of the proportioned human body. It is worth noting that the stylistic difference between the scene depicted in the manuscript (showing medieval motifs) and the classic statue is evidence of the cultural phenomenon wherein artists revisit classic motifs according to the contemporary style.

The two representations differ not only for the style, since they also present different attributes and details. The miniature shows an ax and the presence of water, whereas the statue presents just the protagonists of the episode and the sea snakes. Furthermore, the medieval clothes is another peculiar characteristic of the illumination in contrast with the seminude classical figures that’s interesting to annotate.

Artwork description

The last case study of this section (Figg. 7, 8), concerning the Mary Immaculate Conception, had been selected as representative of examples in which iconographical variants of the same subject witness different beliefs or societal aspects. Indeed, different theories on how the religious event took place exist since Luke’s Gospel (I:26-38) doesn’t explain it in detail; the most common one given by Church Fathers is that it happened during the Annunciation, because God, speaking through archangel Gabriel, fertilised the Virgin (Hirn, 1957, pp. 296-298). Artworks depicting this subject reflect the hypothesis about how it happened: whereas the common iconography of the Immaculate Conception is depicted by a beam of light containing the Holy Spirit dove which hits Mary’s head, in some cases, artists try to represent the God word penetrating Mary through her ear.

Fig. 8 c. XV sculptor, Annunciation, Würzburg, Marienkapelle, gable of the north portal

To model this variant, we compared the Jan Van Eyck painting, showing the classical iconography, to the Marienkapelle representation (Fig. 8). The latter shows God blowing through a tube in the woman's ear, to physically express the theory treated above. In other artworks, different variants of the theme depending on theologians interpretations can be found (i. e. Pacino di Bonaguida, Lignum vitae, 1310-1315, Florence, Gallerie dell'Accademia).

The attention given to the theme, witnessed by textual and figurative examples, indicates how important the subject was for the period taken into account (XII-XV century) and reflects the different beliefs (l. 4) enlightened by the textual and visual solutions conceived to explain the religious mystery and thanks to the identification of theological sources.

Artwork description

In the first case study of this section - the lunette representing Pan in Correggio’s Camera di San Paolo (Fig. 9) - we consider an artwork whose subject has been identified by means of the individuation of its possible source, probably known by the author. This fact is relevant since it’s an iconography with unusual attributes that wouldn’t have been properly identified without the discovery of the cited source, as for the 1912 Warburg’s study on Schifanoia frescoes the discovery of Abū Maʿshar work’s Latin traduction by Pietro d’Abano had been fundamental (Warburg, 1999).

On the basis of the analysis of the buyer's - the abbess Gioanna da Piacenza - social context, culture and position, Panofsky interprets the room depicted by Correggio and the adjacent one (1961). Indeed, he claims that the decoration has a refined symbology, supposing a general understanding. The scholar focuses specifically on monochrome lunettes painted at the basis of the vault, analysing the subject literary sources and identifying their iconographical evolution.

The only lunette depicting Pan is included in this study as an example of the approach adopted for the remaining ones. Usually interpreted as a satyr, the human figure with goat legs and horns is portrayed in profile; he’s blowing in a shell, while behind him there’s a tree trunk to which the syrinx is hung. According to Panofsky, it’s represented here Pan deity of terror, since there’s one textual tradition - from Aratus’ Phaenomena (III century B.C.) to scholars contemporary to Correggio - reporting that Pan used to provoke terror by blowing in a cone shell (Panofsky, 1961). According to this interpretation, the syrinx hung in the background indicates the abandoned benevolent attitude of Pan (l. 3).

As mentioned above, the scholar attempts an interpretation of the whole cycle of lunettes. Thus, he links the Pan figure to the remaining of the east wall, representing the personification of Chastity and Integrity. He affirms that the latter figures face the former in a challenge towards the Panic terror (l. 3). Finally, it’s possible to recognize a fourth level meaning, since it’s possible to see that it’s a testimony of the taste for cryptic representations of the cultured elite to which the buyer belonged.

Artwork description

Irving Lavin (1993) studied the iconography of the Neptune fountain in Bologna (1563-66) relating it to the urban renewal project designed by the papal vicelegate Pier Donato Cesi (1522-1586), in a period in which the city was governed by the Church. According to the study of documents concerning the urban plan, the aim was to affirm the positivity of the papal domain over the city (l. 3), though remembering that opponents would be punished (Lavin, 1992, p. 28). Neptune (Fig. 11) was one of the three statues planned during this occasion.

The iconography of the statue is influenced by Marcantonio Raimondi’s print decorating the first book of Virgil’s Aeneid commissioned by pope Julius II (Fig. 12). It depicts the Quos Ego iconography: it’s the scene in which Neptune intervenes to calm the storm caused by Aeolus at the request of Juno, claiming his authority over the marine kingdom through an unfinished threat toward the transgressor (Verg, Aen, I, v. 135).

A third level political meaning is already present in Virgil’s text: in this passage, Neptune is depicted as a worthy nobleman who placates a popular tumult with his words, alluding to the Ottavian’s Pax Augusta. In addition to that, Aeneis was considered the symbol of the universal power of the Church, since it’s the roman empire - whose birth is celebrated by the text - that allowed the flourishing of the Christian religion in the known world. Thus, as the iconography had probably been already interpreted by pope Julius II as a symbol of the Christian ruler, it’s clearly been used with this symbolic meaning by Cesi, effective ruler of Bologna. Cesi’s words about the statue confirm this interpretation: he “compares the action to that of the ruler who would liberate his subjects from all fear of disturbances'' (Lavin, 1993, p. 80).

Furthermore, the basis of the fountain presents significant symbols (l. 3) of love (putti hugging dolphins), persuasion (dolphins from whose mouth gushes water, mermaids), references to pope Pius IV to whom the fountain is dedicated (metaphor of Pius water reported on the commemorative medal of its realization) and to the Council of Trent (the word “trident” reminds of “tridentinum”).

Artwork description

The last case study of this section considers those differences between the artwork and its source voluntarily made that can lead to fourth level considerations.

Wittkower’s study (1987) on Marco Polo’s Milione unique illuminated manuscript (Bibliothèque Nationale de France, ms 2810) examines miniatures in contrast with the text. In fact, Polo’s report of his journey in Eastern lands was more realistic than other ones that were more influenced by the current Marvels of the East beliefs, depicting Asia as a “fabulous land of wonders” (Wittkower, 1987). Therefore, he often explicitly contradicts contemporary legends.

Nonetheless, illuminations illustrating these passages adhere to the same legends that Polo describes as false. It happens several times: the Unicorn, described by Polo as a rhinoceros, but illuminated as in the common imagery to represent “wild animals” ( folio 85r); the Roc, described as similar to griffon for his size but with different features, depicted half-hidden to conceal the differences ( folio 88r); a creature described as a crocodile but represented as a winged dragoon ( folio 55v; fig. 13); the Salamander, clearly described as a mineral in contrast to common beliefs, but represented as a man among flames even though not burning, a symbol of the right man who’s not burned by lust and sensuality, as common beliefs say ( folio 24r; fig. 14).

Wittkower concludes that this phenomenon expresses that the traditional beliefs concerning the Orient were so entrenched as to contradict the text they are supposed to depict because not following these traditions (l. 4)

Artwork description

The first case study of this section considers an example belonging to the tradition of classical visual motifs adopted to represent subjects and content more close to the Middle Ages imagery, identified by Saxl and Panofsky, opposite to the tradition treated in section 2.

This phenomenon (l. 4) belongs to South Europe countries, where classical visual artworks examples were present. Therefore, that’s the case of a late imperial roman age relief representing Hercules and the Erymanthian Boar (Fig. 15) prototype of the medieval Allegory of Salvation. Since they are both placed on the external wall of Basilica di San Marco in Venice, it’s possible to suppose that the medieval artist directly looked at the roman example as a prototype and intentionally used its motifs to express a subject closer to his sensibility. Thus, although the whole visual composition is unvaried, the boar becomes a deer (l.1), a symbol of the soul (l. 3), king Eurystheus a dragoon crushed by Christ, standing for the devil (l. 3), the lion skin, cloth and Hercules carrying the Erymanthian boar to King Eurystheus turns into Christ who defeats the devil and saves the believers’ souls (Panofsky, Saxl, 1933, p. 228) standing for an allegory of salvation.

Artworks description

The last case study considered is included in a Wittkower’s essay (1938) on the evolution of the relationship between the concepts of Time, Opportunity and Virtue from the classical period to the XVIII century. Among them, the motif of Bernini’s Rape of Proserpina retaken by other artists to depict different subjects is analyzed. This particular case study consists of an iconographical study included in a more general consideration; thus, it doesn’t concern fourth level meanings but the evolution of time and opportunity concepts (l. 3) in different artworks, broadly considered in the essay in different centuries (l. 4).

Due to the great success of the Bernini sculpture, the motif was well known in all Europe; hence, Poussin and Rubens used it to depict the subject of Time carrying off the Truth. In this first passage, there’s a radical change regarding the action expressed: a rape is substituted with a positive discovery. Thus, the action cannot be characterized by the same identifier. Moreover, another statue using the same motif is known, which depicts the Abduction of Cybele by Saturn, whereas the lion is Cybele’s attribute (Regnaudin, 1678; fig. 17). Because of the influence of Rubens and Poussin models, this statue had been wrongly interpreted as the Time revealing the Truth in 1699. It, in turn, is the model for David Le Marchand’s Time and Opportunity (fig. 18). Therefore, another evolution of the subject has happened, probably because both Truth and Chance present similar (even if opposite) relations with time. Whereas in the former iconography time revealing the truth has a positive connotation, the latter’s representation presents time in a negative relationship with opportunity, since it’s the cause of her loss and, as a consequence, Opportunity is represented while she’s killing herself with a spear. In addition, Wittkower highlights another contrastive relationship between Truth and Opportunity: on the basis of the content of an XVI century philosophical poem (Fregoso’s Dialogo de Fortuna, 1521) truth is interpreted as the only one possible remedy to the uncertainty of the faith, related to the concept of the represented Occasio.